2.4 National variation Relatively little research has been undertaken by photohistorians in the field of domestic photography. However, we should be aware that photography developed in different ways in different countries. So, for example, in Britain the daguerreotype remained a luxury article, as high prices restricted sales to the comfortable classes, whereas in America, because of early mass production techniques, studios could offer 4 daguerreotypes for 1 dollar. Photography was, however, a European inve
2.3 Photographs as artefacts Bear in mind that photographs are artefacts. This means that they are more than just images. The photographer, the process and the packaging all add something to our understanding of the role of the photograph. So, for example, the mount can indicate its purpose (exhibition wall, domestic display, album and so on) and the significance attached to the article in its time. The physical properties of a mount, such as the quality of the card or style of printing, can distinguish top-of-the-range
2.2 Photographs as primary sources As a primary source of historical evidence the still photograph remains largely unexamined and unexplored. Many academic historians remain wedded to the written word and are often mistrustful or dismissive of the still image. Photographs continue to be used merely to prettify or to provide necessary breathing space in dense texts. In fact, the task of finding ‘illustrations’ is often only considered after a book is written. What could indicate more clearly that the photograph has n
2.1.3 Amateur snapshots 1880s– 1 How to avoid damage when handling photographs Remember to treat your photographs with the consideration demanded by their age and fragility. Careless handling and storage will cause damage. Handle photographs at the edges: the skin carries chemicals which cause deterioration (professional archivists wear cotton gloves). Hold a photograph in both hands or support an unmounted print with a piece of cardboard to avoid unnecessary handling. Never write on a photograp 2.1 The provinces Controlling and governing the provinces was a substantial part of an emperor's remit. Here you will consider different ways in which the emperor had contact with his provincial subjects. You will work through some sections from books by Goodman and Lewis, and Reinhold and watch a short video sequence. 1.10 Religion and the individual How formal or informal, how personal or impersonal, how loose or how tight, how casual or demanding the religious community is will depend on the form of religion, the extent to which it is enforced and the level of the individual's commitment to it. It is worth remembering that just as people have certain expectations of religion, religions tend to have certain expectations of adherents. The sociologists Rodney Stark and Charles Glock (1968) have argued that although religious organizations 3.1 An introduction to gamelan music The previous section introduced you to a music tradition which places great demands on the inventiveness and virtuosity of a single individual. Although this individual is supported by accompanists, it is to a large extent a soloistic music. We will now move on to a very different kind of music, in a tradition which places more emphasis on group interaction and ensemble playing. This is gamelan music of Sunda, an area comprising roughly the western third of the island of Java, in Indon 1.2 Different perspectives on the creation of music If a simple division into composition and improvisation is not going to be adequate, particularly when considering music beyond the Western art tradition, then what can we usefully say about the different ways in which music is created? A starting point might be to remind ourselves of the similarities between composition and improvisation. Both the improviser and the composer create music. Both of them, in doing so, draw on a range of skills and experience: their musical training and k 4.20 Technologies and explicit knowledge continued In the future we will see the fusion of statistical analyses of documents, agents, ontologies, metadata and informal annotation/discussion. Ontological tagging with metadata would allow authors to express their own deep understanding of the domain which may draw on knowledge that is not in the text of documents. This would allow experts to set a document in context in the light of developments since the document was written, or to encode relationships between documents that show important con 4.18.1 Data mining Data mining refers to techniques for analysing databases or information systems to try to identify hidden but significant patterns that are not possible to detect by standard querying of the database. Moxon defines data mining as follows: Data mining is a set of techniques used in an automated approach to exhaustively explore and bring to the surface complex relationships in very large datasets … most likely im 3.4.1 Integrating memory systems into the flow of work There has been a substantial amount of research interest over the last decade in group/organisational memory systems. For example, software researchers have investigated the possibility of capturing design rationale, the key reasoning that underpins design decisions (Moran and Carroll, 1996). However, time and again projects have failed. A given information codification scheme encourages particular ways of thinking about information and the problem at hand: typically, information must Introduction This unit is from our archive and it is an adapted extract from The professional certificate in management (B615) which is no longer in presentation. If you wish to study formally at The Open University, you may wish to explore the courses we offer in this curriculum area. In this session we look at the first stage of managing people – attracting and selecting 3.2 Knowing who to approach The business of knowing your prospects so that you can address your request to their particular motives, aspirations and concerns is even more challenging when you are dealing with large numbers of people. Here are some relevant questions: Are you seeking contributions from new or existing donors? If you are targeting existing supporters, are you aiming for the broad mass with a general appeal or focusing on a more restricted nu 6.2 Gantt chart Gantt charts show all the key stages of a project and their duration as a bar chart, with the time-scale across the top. The key stages are placed on the bar chart in sequence, starting in the top left-hand corner and ending in the bottom right-hand corner (Figure 7 – Gantt chart for directory production). A Gantt chart can be dr 5.2 Work breakdown A work breakdown structure enables: the work of a project to be divided into ‘packages’; these ‘packages’ can be further subdivided into ‘elements’; these elements are then divided into individual ‘tasks’. This structure provides a basis for estimating the time and effort required. In a large project, the work breakdown structure might allow packages of work to be allocated to t 5.8 Bibliographic software If you are considering taking your studies further you might like to consider using bibliographic software. Bibliographic software can be used to sort references, annotate them, manage quotations or create reading lists. There are several software packages on the market. Some are listed below. 1.5 Cross-listing For many companies, particularly MNCs, there are attractions in having a share listing on more than one stock exchange. The last decade has witnessed an increase in such cross-listings globally. Chouinard and D'Souza (2004) noted that the proportion of non-US listings on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) doubled from about 8.5 per cent in 1994 to 17 per cent at the start of 2003. This period also saw a rise from 7 per cent to 10 per cent in the non-US listings on NASDAQ. Author(s): References 7.5 Becoming an institutional entrepreneur While acting in ways that are seen to be legitimate is important for both individuals and organisations, social institutions are not immutable. Some people and organisations seem to have a talent for changing the rules of the game. Some writers have referred to this as being an institutional entrepreneur. At the organisational level examples might include organisations such as Microsoft or Sun Microsystems working actively to establish industry standards which favour them. At the
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