2.1 Understanding an artist's art Bernard Berenson wrote his book about Caravaggio (1953) because, Until a few decades ago his artistic personality was as nebulous as Leonardo's or Giorgione's before Giovanni Morelli. Almost any canvas was attributed to him that was startlingly lit, that represented figures with plumed hats, vulgar obese giants blasphemously posing as Christ and His disciples, dice-throwing or card-sharping undermen, jumbles of ove 2.1 Meanings of ‘imagination’ A natural starting point is to consider the ways in which ‘imagination’ and related terms such as ‘imagine’ and ‘image’ are used in everyday contexts. Ima 2.8 References and further reading Ascherson, N. (2002) Stone Voices: The Search for Scotland (revised edn), London, Granta. Basu, P. (2007) Highland Homecomings: Genealogy and Heritage Tourism in the Scottish Diaspora, London, Routledge. Carman, J. and Carman, P. (2006) Bloody Meadows: Investigating Landscapes of Battle, Thrupp, Sutton. Keep on learning   There are more than 800 courses on OpenLearn for you to 5.1 Capturing commemorative events This section explores the events commemorated in photographs. Begin by listing the occasions when we choose to use our cameras today. It might help to think back over the times when you have used your 4.10 Retouching In addition to the efforts made before exposure to show sitters at their best, portrait photographers regularly retouched the negative to remove or improve any perceived defects or blemishes. Before the 1860s, in Britain retouching was generally criticized for interfering with the ‘truthfulness’ of the photographic image. By the mid-1860s, however, the issue became the subject of intense debate and discussion and the journals published details of the various techniques available at the ti 2.2 Photographs as primary sources As a primary source of historical evidence the still photograph remains largely unexamined and unexplored. Many academic historians remain wedded to the written word and are often mistrustful or dismissive of the still image. Photographs continue to be used merely to prettify or to provide necessary breathing space in dense texts. In fact, the task of finding ‘illustrations’ is often only considered after a book is written. What could indicate more clearly that the photograph has n 2.1 Styles of photograph Let's briefly examine the various styles of photograph that are commonly found in family albums. 1 How to avoid damage when handling photographs Remember to treat your photographs with the consideration demanded by their age and fragility. Careless handling and storage will cause damage. Acknowledgements Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and conditions), this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Licence Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce materia Keep on learning   There are more than 800 courses on OpenLearn for you to Conclusion This free course provided an introduction to studying the arts and humanities. It took you through a series of exercises designed to develop your approach to study and learning at a distance and helped to improve your confidence as an independent learner. 3.6 Assessing James's argument James argues as follows: A It is impossible to experience an emotion without feeling bodily changes. B Therefore, an emotion is a set of bodily feelings. 3.4 Cognitive and non-cognitive states At several points in the Reading, James draws a sharp contrast between emotions and what he terms ‘cognitions’. The distinction between cognitive and non-cognitive states will crop up fairly regularly from now on, so I shall pause at this point to make it clear how I am going to understand this distinction. Unfortunately, different philosophers understand the distinction in different ways; I shall introduce two possible interpretations of the distinction. On one interpretation, the 3.3 Emotion, motivation and action Perhaps one of the most striking features of James's theory is his account of the relationship between emotions and actions. As James points out, this is one aspect of his theory that runs directly counter to our ordinary conception of emotion. Ordinarily, we assume that emotions motivate actions: for example, if someone asked why Larry kicked Bella's bin, we might say that he was motivated by anger – that he did it because he was angry. On James's account, the order of explanation is rever 3.2 Understanding James's account James's thesis is striking, but there are some issues that need to be clarified. Before going on to assess James's argument for his thesis, I will explore his position by raising three questions about his account. First, what kinds of bodily changes are required for an emotion to take place? James mentions three kinds of change: (a) internal changes (increase in heart rate) (b) involuntary expressive behaviour (weeping) 3.1 William James In 1890, the philosopher and psychologist William James published his influential work The Principles of Psychology. The book included a chapter on the emotions, in which James advanced a bold new thesis about the nature of the emotions. James's thesis has had an enormous influence on subsequent debate. Reading 1 is a short extract from James's chapter on the emotions. In the passage that precedes this extract, James castigates earlier psychologists who have written on the subjec 2.4 Components, causes and effects In this section, I shall say a little more about the shape that we might expect an answer to the ‘What is…?’ question to take. In particular, I would like consider some different claims about the way in which an emotional occurrence is related to other types of occurrence. Here is a story. Larry is told by his manager, Bella, that the project that he has been working on for months has been shelved: all his hard work has been wasted. Larry hears Bella telling him the news as 2.3 Essential properties and central cases What should we expect a finished answer to the ‘What is…?’ question to look like? It might be suggested that we should answer this question by identifying a set of features that are shared by all uncontroversial cases of emotion – for example, cases of anger or fear – and that are not shared by psychological occurrences of other kinds – for example, hunger or cowardice. Once we have identified these features, we will be able to refer to them to decide any controversial cases. An a 2.2 Identifying emotions The question ‘What is an emotion?’ is a question about emotions in general. But it is impossible to address this question without being aware that there appear to be many different types of emotion. One way to start is to consider a range of states and to identify which states we would naturally classify as emotions, and which we would naturally classify as states of some other kind. This will put us in a better position to see whether there are any common features that link different typ
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