Types of information resources

• Use them to find definitions of terms, subjects or topics
• Use them to determine the subject context of a new topic to help with further searching
• Subject-specific dictionaries provide definitions of specialist terms
• Foreign language dictionaries translate foreign terms into English or vice versa

Use encyclopaedias to find:

• A concise overview of the key aspects of a subject or concept
• A review of the history of a topic
• References to further information
• Biographical details of key figures

Some online encyclopaedias you can explore are:

• Encyclopaedia Britannica
  
• eLS: Citable reviews in the life sciences
  
• Encyclopedia of materials
• Many more in various subject areas.

Wikipedia is a well-known online encyclopaedia but has variable quality and should not be relied upon for your university research. If you do use it at all be sure to follow up references to other sources to check the factual content and to reference these rather than Wikipedia itself.

• Collections of statistics in which you can find numerical data for your subject
• Scientific data compilations containing e.g. tables of physical and chemical properties
• Pharmacopoeias which give factual information on pharmaceuticals e.g. dosages
• Bibliographies which are collections of references on a subject or person

Textbooks provide:

• An in-depth overview of a subject
• A good grounding in a new discipline
• A comparison of differing ideas, theories and opinions
• Facts and figures

Monographs go into more detail including in-depth information, discussion and detailed explanation of research - this is particularly the case in the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. In the sciences monographs may provide a collection of data, experimental methods etc.

Books can become out of date due to the length of time taken to publish them. This is more important in some subjects than others.

See guidelines for referencing books

• Some are exact copies of the print version
• Some provide additional features, e.g. video, self-learning tests, quizzes etc
• Some can be downloaded onto hand-held devices for more comfortable reading while others require an Internet connection
• They can be viewed by several readers at once while a printed book is only available to one person at a time

See guidelines for referencing ebooks

• Each year is generally represented by a volume number
• Each volume contains individual issues which reflect how often the journal is published, eg, weekly, monthly, quarterly
• Each issue of a journal includes a number of short articles

Journals may be available in print and/or electronic format. Often only the more recent volumes are available online.

The University subscribes to thousands of journals, but these can only be a proportion of the total number of journals published worldwide.

Individual journals vary but typically their contents include:

• Reports of original research
• Reviews of current subjects of interest
• News and comment on topical issues or professional concerns
• Lists of forthcoming events or conferences
• Job adverts

Review articles provide an overview of a subject.

They are:

• Long, essay-style articles giving a state-of-the-art picture of a topic
• Good sources of references to other relevant literature

Reviews may be published in special annual review serials or alongside other content in journals.

Research papers, the more usual type of journal article, directly report primary research.

They are:

• More up-to-date than books as publication is faster
• Usually ‘peer reviewed’, i.e. they have been rigorously assessed and evaluated by experts in the field to ensure the research and conclusions are valid
• Detailed, covering a specific aspect of a subject in much more detail than books
• Usually short, factual and contain precise research methods and results

However, research papers are not useful for:

• A general overview of a subject
• An introduction to a new topic

See guidelines for referencing journal articles

Important features of newspapers include:

• Currency/immediacy
• Eyewitness accounts
• Awareness raising
• Opinions and comment on topical issues
• Reviews of books and contemporary culture
• Obituaries of famous people

Disadvantages of newspapers include:

• Lack of peer review or accuracy checks
• Sensationalism/writing to sell copy
• Bias, perhaps written with particular political viewpoint
• Not usually written at an academic level

• Current issues in a particular field or area are often debated at conferences and the discussions included in the proceedings
• Papers can be presented at a conference long before, if ever, they are published in a journal

As a result, conference proceedings are an ideal way of finding the most up-to-date and current research and ideas.

The title of the conference proceeding will show where the conference was held and when. The organising body or conference editors will also be provided.

See guidelines for referencing conference proceedings

Reports are useful for providing:

• Up to date information - they are usually published to a specific deadline or as a reaction to an event
• Current views and opinions
• Recommendations about future practice
• Technical information, statistics or data that you would not find in books or journal articles

Disadvantages of reports include:

• They can quickly become out of date as they reflect the current situation at a given time
• Not all reports are published so they can be difficult to locate

Examples:

The following websites are examples of reports published in response to events:

• Building a low-carbon economy – the UK’s innovation challenge. Report of the Committee on Climate Change. 2010
• The Leveson Inquiry Report

(Both accessed 28/5/2013)

Standards may offer:

• Guidance on recommended procedures
• Prescriptive design details
• Testing methods

Standards enable the efficient design, manufacture and supply of safe products and services to the consumer by:

• Promoting best practice
• Encouraging international co-operation
• Ensuring compatibility of parts thus enabling global trade
• Providing reliable data to inform the design process
• Setting quality and safety requirements
• Enabling conformance comparisons (fit-for-purpose)
• Helping with technology transfer to developing countries

In Britain, standards are produced by the  British Standards Institution (BSI). There are over 16,000 adopted British Standards and each year new or revised standards are issued to ensure they are kept up to date.

Over 150 national bodies combine to form the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) which agrees international standards.

Other bodies include:

• The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC): International standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies
• The American National Standards Institute (ANSI): US national standards
• DIN (Deutsches Institut fur Normung e. V): German national standards
• The European Telecommunications Standard Institute: Standards for the telecommunications industry
• The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM International): technical standards for engineering materials
• IEEE standards: Standards published by the Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and also the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).

See guidelines for referencing a British Standard

• Manuscripts are primary source materials and they give an authentic glimpse into the past
• They require you to piece together evidence, and make your own interpretation of how or why things happened as they did
• They form a body of material that can be used for original research, for assignments, dissertations and postgraduate study
• Early books can also be used as primary sources, as they give contemporary insights into the culture, people and events of the day

Patents are important because:

• They are the first reports of commercially-sensitive research
• They document research not reported in journals
• They contain detailed descriptions and, if relevant, designs or other illustrations
• They can show trends in development and applications of new technology

The patenting process

In order to obtain a patent the invention must fulfil the following:

• New - the claimed invention must be filed for patenting before publication elsewhere or, in some countries, within a limited time period of publication
• Useful - i.e. capable of industrial application
• Contain an “inventive step” which is not obvious to others

Some types of invention are excluded from patenting:

• Illegal or immoral
• A literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work
• Scientific or mathematical theories
• A way of performing a mental act, playing a game or doing business
• Some computer programs
• Animal breeds or plant varieties
• Medical treatments or diagnostic methods

The process of patenting an invention can take several years to complete.

Patents are granted by national or international patenting authorities such as the UK Patent Office or the World International Property Office (WIPO) and cover specific countries or geographical areas for limited periods of time, usually 20 years. During this time the patent-holder can profit directly or by selling or licensing the invention to other companies.

Visit the UK Intellectual Property Office for further information.

Guidelines for referencing patents

• Research undertaken at universities around the world
• Details of research completed by others in your school or department

Guidelines for referencing theses

• Connect with Nottingham and keep up to date with the latest news from the University
• Keep up to date with current research in your subject area
• Find out about employers in a sector that interests you
• Set up a professional profile