Resources

Glossary

• Accommodation - this is the creation of a new schema, or the modification of an existing one, when new information cannot be assimilated into the existing schema.

• ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) - a disorder characterised by low levels of attention and concentration, high levels restlessness and over-activity and high levels of impulsiveness, that is acting without thinking things through. In the disorder these difficulties are present from an early age, persist over the years and occur in a variety of situations, not just one situation. The difficulties are not better explained by autism-autistic spectrum disorders or depression or anxiety.

• Animism - is when the child sees an inanimate object, eg a toy as being alive, or with life-like qualtiies. So the toy has the attributes of a living person. This can refer to very diverse objects, eg mountains, blankets etc.

• Assimilation - is a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge.

• Autism Spectrum Disorders (also ASD) - range of related developmental disorders known as autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) that begin in childhood and last through adulthood. ASDs can cause a wide range of symptoms, which are often grouped into three categories; problems and difficulties with social interaction, impaired language and communication skills, unusual patterns of thought and physical behaviour.

• Behaviourism - s a theory of development whereby behaviour can be described through the process of conditioning the person to use the behaviours required. It was used by Watson and also Skinner in developing their theories of learning.

• Brain - is the organ protected by the skull containing nervous tissue. It is divided into lobes - occipital, frontal, parietal and temporal lobes which develop through childhood to support the development of the child’s skills and abilities – developing the intellectual capacity of the child.

• Centration - tendency of the child to focus on only one aspect of a problem.

• Circular Reactions - defined by Piaget, the sensori-motor stage is subdivided into primary, secondary and tertiary reactions; primary reactions – infant repeats actions he/she enjoys, typically involving their own body, eg sucking a thumb, secondary reactions – infant understands that he/she can influence what they do, so repeats actions he/she enjoys typically involving objects, eg, picking up and playing with a toy, tertiary reactions – infant starts to reverse actions, eg, putting back together an object that they took apart, eg. putting the toys they been playing with back in the box).

• Cognitive Development - the development of processes of knowing, including memory, imagining, perceiving, reasoning, and problem solving.

• Conception - the point at which the ovum (egg) and sperm meet and fertilisation occurs to form an embryo.

• Concrete operational stage - according to Piaget, the third stage of development, from about 7-11 yrs, thought is logical when stimuli are physically present.

• Conservation tasks - problems that require the child to make judgments about how two things might be equivalent (weight and height).

• Cortisol - is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex (outer layer) in response to ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone). It supports a number of body processes, including the control of glucose and immunity. It has a role in reducing inflammation and the response to stress..

• Egocentrism - "an egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does" Piaget stated that children in the preoperational stage of development think in an egocentric way.

• Equilibrium - essentially means to maintain a balance. In terms of child development, it means finding a balance within a phase of development where the child is juggling the development of thought processes, their behaviour and their attitudes with the changes that occur in development, eg. in altering the behaviour: Once the child has learnt that objects exist, so the child then starts to look for the missing toy when before the child would just move on to another toy they can see.

• Formal operational stage - according to Piaget, this is the last stage of development, from about twelve to fifteen years of age, in which thinking can be abstract and hypothetical.

• Habituation - is the process through which a child becomes accustomed to a situation or stimulus. The stimulus is repeated so many times that the child starts to ignore it and stops responding to it, so they adapt to the situationl.

• Hippocampus - is the part of the brain – specifically at the base of the lateral ventricles. It is thought to be where the emotions and memory are centrally processed.

• Hypothetical reasoning - Ability to systematically generate and evaluate potential solutions to a problem.

• Irreversibility - is a stage in early child development in which a child falsely believes that actions cannot be reversed or undone.

• Memory - is the mental ability to remember information that has previously been learnt. Taking in information is encoded in the brain, stored and then recalled when required. It involves a number of areas in the brain which develop through childhood particularly in understanding information learnt.

• Negative reinforcement - this is the development of behaviour by removing or avoiding a negative (eg. painful) stimulus. The term was described by Skinner within the theory of Operant Conditioning. It should not be seen as punishment. Eg a child who doesn’t manage to use the potty correctly and has an ‘accident’ is told off. If they then use the potty correctly, the negative stimulus of being told off, is removed..

• Object permanence - realisation that objects exist even when they are not within view. Also called object concept.

• Operant conditioning - Described by Watson and later Skinner, this is a type of learning where the child learns to change their behaviour. Undertaking a behaviour results in a consequence which can be positive or negative, so the child then learns to either repeat the behaviour getting more positive responses or stop the behaviour to avoid the negative consequence.

• Perception - is the ability to receive information and become aware of it using the different senses – vision, hearing, touch, smell or taste.

• Perspective taking - is the ability to take the role of another person and understand what that person is thinking or feeling.

• Placenta - is the temporary organ developed in the uterus (womb) during gestation which connects the embryo/foetus to the mother’s body in mammals, including humans. It provides the ability for the foetus to receive oxygen and nutrients from the mother and to expel unwanted waste products, eg carbon dioxide.

• Preoperational stage - in Piagetian theory, the second stage of development, from about 2 -7 years in which thought becomes symbolic.

• Protodeclarative communication - use of a gesture to call attention to an object or event.

• Receptive speech - is the ability of the infant to understand the language that they either hear or read..

• Representational thought - described by Piaget, this is the ability of the child to recognise and understand the use of symbols to represent objects or situations, eg if a parent is away, having an object of the absent parent to remind them of the person.

• Scaffolding - the help by one person to encourage, support, and assist a lesser-skilled person in carrying out a task or completing a problem. The model provides knowledge and skills that are learned and gradually transferred to the learner.

• Schema - another word for a plan – typically an explanation of a theory or framework.

• Sensorimotor stage - according to Piaget the first stage of cognitive development, from birth to about 2 yrs, in which thought is based primarily on action.

• Social Constructivism - is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes the collaborative nature of much learning. Social constructivism was developed by Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky.

• Social Learning Theory - (Albert Bandura) thought that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.

• Synapse - structure at the end of a neuron, or nerve cell, through which an electrical or chemical message is passed to another neuron. All of a person's thinking, movement and feeling depends on the transmission of mesages through synapses Multiple synapses are made as the brain develops during synaptogenesis and are pruned or lost if the connections are not repeatedly used.

• Synaptogenesis - is the process whereby the brain develops connections or synapses, between neurons (nerves) in the brain. This allows messages (impulses) to travel around the body.

• Thalidomide - was a medicine used as a sedative but withdrawn from general use in the 1960s as it had tragic effects on the development of the unborn foetus resulting in birth defects, eg malformed limbs.

• Theory of mind - awareness of the concept of mental states of other people as well as own mental state.

• Transductive reasoning - with transductive reasoning, a child reasons from case to case, ignoring important, well-established facts they have yet to learn. For example, a child might reason that pizza is triangular in shape rather than round, if they have only seen single slices.

Learning outcomes

Intellectual Development - from birth to two years old - print

The period from conception to 2 years of age is very significant in terms of brain development and the consequent cognitive development. At first basic physiological functions are developed - reacting to hunger, pain, fear, cold takes priority followed by the mastery of emotions and later on the development of thinking or cognition. Whilst the baby is born with virtually an adult number of brain cells, connections between these change rapidly, both developing and being lost as different brain functions become established. As babies grow and learn the, essentially, reflex responses of early neonatal life get replaced with increasingly complex patterns of response. Imitation and repetition are important in these developments. Play and sensation are key to learning at this stage of development.

By completing this resource you will be able to:

• Describe aspects of brain development that are relevant to intellectual development from conception to 2 years old
• Outline the main cognitive changes seen from birth to 2 years old

Please type any additional notes and comments you have on this resource in the field below: Print

Learning outcomes

By completing this resource you will be able to:

• Describe aspects of brain development that are relevant to intellectual development from conception to 2 years old.
• Outline the main cognitive changes seen from birth to 2 years old.

Credits

Name: Mary Y Brown

Role in Project: Content Author

Qualifications: MMSci Ed, PGCertPT, BSc (Hons), RNCB, RNT.

Previous experience: Mary is an Assistant Professor with the School of Health Sciences teaching communication skills, innovation and recognising culture and diversity through experiential learning. She is a Registered Nurse Child Branch with a specialty in Paediatric Oncology and supporting children with complex needs and their families.

Name: Louise Clarke

Role in Project: Content Author

Qualifications: PGCHE, BSc (Hons) Psychology and Sociology, Diploma in Nursing, RN Child, FHEA.

Previous experience: Louise’s clinical career involved a variety of medical and surgical settings and a specialisation in paediatric plastics and cleft lip and palate care. She is currently employed as a Child Health Lecturer at the University of Nottingham involved in teaching communication, interpersonal and leadership skills alongside facilitating the development of clinical practical skills in undergraduate children’s nurses.

Name: Carol Hall

Role in Project: Content Author

Qualifications: PhD, RSCN, RGN, RNT, PFHEA.

Previous experience: Carol is an experienced nurse teacher and children’s nurse, who worked across a range of children’s acute healthcare settings before becoming a ward manager on a teenage care ward for young people with both physical and mental health concerns. Carol is currently an Associate Professor and Director of Undergraduate Education within the School of Health Sciences at the University of Nottingham.

Name: Liz Hilton

Role in Project: Technical Developer

Qualifications: BA (Hons) Graphic Design, BSc (Hons) Biology,

Previous experience: Liz has a wide background in design and E-learning in a wide range of sectors, including industry, the NHS and academic.

Name: Laura Holliday

Role in Project: Content Author

Qualifications: MNursSci, RN Child.

Previous experience: Laura’s clinical experience includes children’s cardiology, medicine and respiratory. She has previously led a hospital wide preceptorship programme, working within a practice development team. She is currently employed as a Teaching Associate in Child Health at the University of Nottingham.

Name: Lydia Jones

Role in Project: Technical Support and audio manager

Qualifications: BA (Hons) Media Production.

Previous experience: Lydia has worked in the HELM team at the University of Nottingham for 7 years and is currently the e-learning and project development officer. She has many years’ experience in project management and audio and video production.

Name: Gill Langmack

Role in Project: Lead Content Author

Qualifications: MSc, PGCHE, BSc (Hons) Nursing, RSCN, RGN, FHEA.

Previous experience: As an experienced Children's Nurse and educator, Gill has extensive experience of nursing children and their families in both acute and critical care areas. Gill is currently lecturing as an Assistant Professor within the University of Nottingham, School of Health Sciences.

Name: Helen Laverty

Role in Project: Principal Content Reviewer

Qualifications: MSc. (Human Development), Cert Ed (FE), RNLD, SFHEA

Previous experience: Helen is an Assistant Professor with the School of Health Sciences & Professional Lead for learning Disability Nursing. Her teaching specialities relate to the concept of ordinariness, human development, and person centred philosophies. She has extensive experience in the development of RLOs. She is a Registered Nurse Learning Disabilities specialising in promoting an ordinary life for children and young people and leadership.

Name: Andrew Lee

Role in Project: Technical Developer

Qualifications: BSc (Hons) Economics.

Previous experience: Andrew has 5 years web development experience working with small businesses, consultancy and app. creation. Twelve years game design experience as senior designer and design lead with oversight of design scripting, level design, scheduling and game mechanics.

Name: Liz Maslen

Role in Project: Project Lead (NCC)

Qualifications: BSc (Hons) Psychology, CMI PGDip.

Previous experience: Liz currently works as the Children’s Workforce Development Manager at Nottinghamshire County Council. She has 17 years’ experience within the childcare sector, and during this time has worked within voluntary, statutory and private organisations. She has also been involved with the management and delivery of regional and national training programmes aimed at multi-agency frontline practitioners and parent groups.

Name: Roz McCormick

Role in Project: Content Initiator

Qualifications: BA (Hons)

Previous experience: Roz is a qualified probation officer. She has worked in education, criminal justice and training since 1995, and has initiated, developed and delivered a variety of developmental projects with the intention of enabling professionals to work in partnership with service users. She initiated contact with University of Nottingham in pursuit of a rock solid knowledge base upon which to create a robust child development learning platform.

Name: Sally Melling

Role in Project: Content Author

Qualifications: EdD, MPhil, BA (Hons) Nursing, RN (Adult), RN Child, RNT

Previous experience: Sally is an Associate Professor at the University of Nottingham. She has over 30 years’ experience as a children's nurse and educator. She is currently the Professional Lead for children's nursing.

Name: Elisabeth O’Brien

Role in Project: Lead Content Author

Qualifications: MEd, PGCHE, BSc (Hons), RGN, RHV, Obs Cert, FHEA.

Previous experience: Elisabeth worked in neonatal intensive care and a Bone Marrow Transplant unit . After working as Health Visitor in the U.K and abroad she joined the Child Health Team at the University of Nottingham.

Name: Cherry Poussa

Role in Project: Technical team manager

Qualifications: MSc, BSc.

Previous experience: Cherry is Head of Digital Learning Support Services in the School of Health Sciences, University of Nottingham with responsibility for IT systems, e-learning and online services and managing the integration of technical platforms to support the processes within these areas. She plays a key part in implementing the HELM strategy and supporting the technical and budgetary aspects of e-learning and digital media research projects.

Name: Mike Taylor

Role in Project: Technical Lead

Qualifications: MSc in Information Technology, PGC in Multi-Media design, BA (Hons) Media and cultural studies.

Previous experience: Mike has worked as a learning technologist for over 10 years at the University of Nottingham. He is currently the Project Development Lead for the HELM team and is working on the development of reusable learning objects (RLOs) both for the school of health sciences and for external projects.

Name: Richard Warr

Role in Project: Technical Implementer

Qualifications: MCIPD.

Previous experience: Originally an Optician, Richard moved into training, initially clinical support and then as a professional examiner. Over the next 25 years he became CIPD qualified and a member of the British Psychological Society. He has supported learners in: personal development, leadership and management, psychometric profiling, customer service and bespoke systems training amongst others. Over the last 4 years Richard has focussed on eLearning design and learning systems management within Nottinghamshire County Council.

Name: Richard Windle

Role in Project: Project Lead and Instructional Designer

Qualifications: PhD, PGCAP, BSc (Hon), PFHEA

Previous experience: Richard is an Associate Professor at the University of Nottingham. He is currently co-academic lead for the HELM team. As well as leading online curriculum development, his research and development interests include open multimedia learning content pedagogy and reuse, stakeholder involvement in content development and student generated content.

With thanks to the following who reviewed the content of the resources:

University of Nottingham Nursing students (Child field):

Ryan Clarke, Clare Cribdon, Aoife Fehilly, Rosanna Jones, Ruth Jones, Kelly Parker, Simone Portman and Molly Wright

University of Nottingham Lecturers in Health Sciences:

Paula Dawson, Damion McCormick, Alexandra Lewandowska-Smith and Heather Wharrad

Nottingham County Council Family Workers:

Helen Bingley, Susan Bird, Debbie Jesson, Meena Sharma, Dina Vitelli and Sharon Warman

With Thanks to:

The young people their families and colleagues who have provided audio and visual resources.

James Henderson, Thomas Stackpoole and Stathis Konstantinidis who provided additional audio narration for these resources.

Kirstie Coolin, Simon Riley and Nicholas Whiting for additional technical support.

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